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1890s
Politics and Law Congressional Acts Congress passed several major acts during the 1890s. The Circuit Court of Appeals Act of 1891 allowed the Supreme Court to review any case at will.1 Also in 1891, the General Land Revision Act was passed, granting the President the power to protect watersheds by creating forest reserves.2 Due in part to the efforts of the American Federation of Labor and to appease angry workers, Congress made Labor Day a Federal holiday in 1894.3 In 1898, Congress passed the Curtis Act banning all forms of tribal jurisdiction. The Indian nations were told to dissolve their governments and settle the West like other homesteaders.4 Supreme Court Rulings The Supreme Court cases in the 1890s seem to focus on racial conflicts, particularly segregation. Arguably the most famous segregation case, Plessey ''v. ''Ferguson, was reviewed in 1896. The Supreme Court upheld the lower court’s ruling. The Court’s opinion created the “separate but equal” doctrine that would last until the Civil Rights Movement.5 In 1898, the Supreme Court decided that having poll taxes and literacy tests to vote was constitutional. The tests and taxes were used to prevent blacks from voting without technically defying the fifteenth amendment.6 In the 1898 Cumming v. Richmond Board of Education case, the Supreme Court decision allowed school segregation. Under this ruling, a city could legally have a high school for whites but not one for blacks because high school was not compulsory.7 Presidental Elections Election of 1892 In the 1892 presidential election, Democrat Grover Cleveland returned to the White House for his second, nonconsecutive term after defeating Republican incumbent Benjamin Harrison.8 When the Farmers’ Alliance dissolved, its principles became guidelines to the newly formed People’s Party, which had candidates in 1892 elections.9 Election of 1896 Due, in part, to Cleveland’s poor response to the Panic of 1893, the Republicans believed that they could easily win the 1896 presidential election. When William Bryan became the Democratic candidate, it became clear that he was a strong contender. At 36, Bryan is the youngest man to be nominated for the presidency.10 With Bryan campaigning and gaining support from the farmers and laborers, Republican candidate William McKinley turned to big businesses. In the end, McKinley won with 61 percent of the electoral votes.11 Statehood, State Laws, and City Politics Wyoming entered the Union in 1890, becoming the first state that granted women full suffrage.12 In 1896 Utah entered the Union and was the fourth state to grant women full suffrage, the other two being Colorado and Idaho.13 The Illinois Factory Investigation Act of 1893 was a major win for reformists. It was one of the first laws passed that regulated working conditions in sweatshops. It limited women’s workday to eight hours and prevented children under the age of 14 from working.14 In 1898, in Wilmington, NC, multiple blacks had won minor political offices. Several angry whites staged a coup, forcing the politicians out of the city and killing around 100 black citizens.15 Culture and Society Women's Suffrage and Civil Rights In 1890, the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association merged, forming the National American Woman Suffrage Association. They united under the goal of campaign for women’s right to vote on a state level.16 Ida B. Wells began an antilynching campaign in 1892. She claimed that lynching was a response to social and economic changes and not due to any crime the victim supposedly commited.17 She backed up that claim in 1895, when she published A Red Record, a pamphlet proving that most lynching victims had never been accused of a sexual crime. Instead, most lynching victims were blacks who’s businesses posed a threat to white businesses or blacks that were considered too powerful or wealthy.18 The National Association of Colored Women formed in 1896. They continued Wells’ antilynching campaign and wanted to prevent white men from exploiting black women.19 Social Reform In 1890, Jacob Riis published a book, How the Other Half Lives, which showed the reality of New York slums and shocked the nation.20 Social reformist Florence Kelley kept detailed accounts of the dismal working conditions in sweatshops, as well as the effect of long hours on women and children in 1893.21 In 1895, the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union linked drinking to negative behaviors, such as domestic abuse, unemployment, and industrial accidents.22 In 1898, the Anti-Imperialism League held a mass meeting. While the members supported economic expansion, they did not want America to create an empire, but instead use a free trade system.23 Workers Strike The 1890s was filled with workers’ strife. In 1892, anti-unionist Henry Clay Frick wanted to prevent the Homestead Mill from renewing their union contract with Amalgamated Iron and Steel Workers. This resulted in the Homestead Lockout. After being locked out, workers prevented anyone else from doing their jobs, which was the first major organized strike with a leader. When Frick attempted to bring in the Pinkertons, it resulted in a riot.24 In 1894, miners at Cripple Creek went on strike when the mine refused to shorten the workday from ten hours to eight hours. It was one of the few strikes were the union won.25 Another strike occurred in 1894. The time the strike was against the Pullman Palace Car Company, which made railroad cars. American Railroad Union members boycotted Pullman by refusing to run any trains with Pullman cars. Ultimately, the US military was called in to put the strike down.26 The first major march on Washington DC occurred in 1894. A group of unemployed Americans, angered by the lack of action the government took in response to the economic depression, formed Coxey’s Army.27 Leisure In Springfield, MA, Dr. James A. Naismith invented basketball in 1891.28 In 1893, Chicago hosted the World’s Columbian Exposition. It had a little bit of everything, including Little Egypt dancing the Hoochee-Coochee.29 It also included Buffalo Bill’s famous Wild West Show, which had over 10,000 spectators during the World’s Fair.30 Commerce and the Economy The Cost of Doing Business Changes in American society were two-edged.31 Big businesses helped to rationalize the economy, to increase national wealth, and to tie the country together. Yet they also concentrated power, corrupted politics, and made the gap between rich and poor more apparent than ever.32 Big businesses subjected the economy to enormous disruptions. The banking system could not always keep pace with the demand for capital, and businesses failed to distribute enough of their profits to sustain the purchasing power of workers.33 The Depression of 1893 On May 1, 1893, President Cleveland set ablaze 10,000 bulbs which opened the World's Columbian Exchange.34 Four days later a wave of bankruptcies destroyed major firms across the country, and stock prices sank to all-time lows, setting off the depression of 1893.35 During the first year of the depression, 1400 strikes sent more than half a million workers from their jobs.36 By the end of 1894 nearly one in five workers was out of a job.37 President Cleveland declared that the federal government had no role in helping the American people of the depression; the states offered little more help that the federal government did.38 Relief, like poverty, was considered a private matter so the burden fell on local charities, churches, labor unions, and ward bosses.39 McKinley Tariff The McKinley tariff was enacted in 1890 when Republicans controlled the House of Representatives.40 It raised tariff rates to new highs and contained a novel twist called "reciprocity." To help promote freer trade, the President could lower rates if other countries did the same.41 An Open Door in China In 1899, at the urging of the British, Secretary of State John Hay circulated the first of two "open door" notes among the imperial powers.42 Sherman Antitrust Act The Sherman Antitrust Act outlawed "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce." The act relied on the only constitutional authority Congress had over business: it's right to regulate interstate commerce. The act did give the government the power to break up trusts and other big businesses.43 The United States stood practically alone among industrialized nations in regulating the size of business combinations.44 In 1895, the Supreme Court dealt the law a major blow by severely limiting its scope. United States v. E. C. Knight Co. ''held that businesses involved in manufacturing (as opposed to trade or commerce) lay outside the authority of the Sherman Antitrust Act.45 Important People *John D. Rockefeller- owned Rockefeller's Standard oil Company, which controlled 90% of the nations refining capacity. 46 *Andrew Carnegie- owned Carnegie Steel Company that was later made into U.S. Steel Company. By 1900, his company turned out more steel than Great Britain and netted $40 million.47 *J. Pierpont Morgan- owned what is now JP Morgan Bank. Morgan convinced Carnegie to put a price tag on his company, he then bought Carnegie's eight largest competitors and formed the United States Steel Corporation. Its value of $1.4 billion exceeded the national debt and made it the countries first billion-dollar corporation. 48 War and Foreign Relations 'The Battle of Wounded Knee' Considered the last major battle between American Indians and United States troops occurred on December 29, 1890. After years of being restricted to reservations in the Dakotas, the Sioux turned to a s piritual movement called the Ghost Dance that would, they believed, cause whites to disappear from Indian lands.49 After several demands calling on the Sioux to cease the Ghost Dance went unanswered and fearing an uprising, the federal government called in military units. On December 15, Sitting Bull, the most famous Sioux chief, was killed in a clash following an attempt to arrest him.50 Some of Sitting Bull’s followers fled with Chief Big Foot and his band. The Seventh Cavalry of the U.S. Army captured them at Wounded Knee Creek (present day South Dakota). As the troops were disarming them, shots rang out (which side shot first is uncertain).51 The soldiers retaliated by opening fire, killing scores. In the end, over 300 Sioux were killed, including women and children and 29 U.S. troops lost their lives.52 'Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii On January 17, 1893, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii Queen Lili'uokalanii was overthrown in a bloodless coup largely led by American citizens who were oppssed to her attempt to establish a new Constitution.53The sucuess of the coup greatly revolved around the 150 UMSC who came ashore off the U.S.S Boston at the request of the conspirators.54 The new Constitution had laid out a plan to takeaway the right to suffrage for Europeans and Americans but business interests were the most in jeopardy because of the concern of the removal of foreign tariffs on the American sugar trade. '''Spanish-American War Began as a humanitarian misson effort to help Cuba gain independence from Spain's colonial hands and ended with the United States acquiring land overseas, fighting a guerilla war against Filipino citizens, who, like the Cubans, were trying to free themselves from colonization and establish an independent nation.55 'Prelude to war' The De Lôme Letter, which set off an 1898 diplomatic incident, was written by Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish Minister with the Portfolio of Cuba. In a personal letter, he referred to the President William McKinley as weak and catering to the rabble and, besides, a low politician who desires to leave a door open to himself and to stand well with the patriots of his party.56 As Cuba plunged into deeper unrest, the U.S.S Maine was sent to Cuba to ensure the safety of American citizens and interests. At 9:40pm on Febuaray 15, 1898, the Maine sank after it was rocked by a huge explosion killing 266 sailors.57 The sinking of the ship stirred up popular American opinion into demanding an abrupt response. 'Yellow Journalism' Presents little or no researched news and instead use eye-catching headlines to sell newspapers. This tactic was widely used by Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal ''during the war to infuse Americans to support the efforts.58 'The Roughriders' The most famous of all the units fighting in Cuba, the "Rough Riders" was the name given to the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry under the leadership of Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt resigned his position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in May 1898 to join the volunteer cavalry.59 The original plan for this unit called for filling it with men from the Indian Territory, New Mexico, Arizona, and Oklahoma. However, once Roosevelt joined the group, it quickly became the place for a mix of troops ranging from Ivy League athletes to glee-club singers to Texas Rangers and Indians. The Rough Riders saw battle at Las Guásimas when General Samuel B. M. Young was ordered to attack at this village, three miles north of Siboney on the way to Santiago.60 Although it was not important to the outcome of the war, news of the action quickly made the papers. They also made headlines for their role in the Battle of San Juan Hill, where Roosevelt led his men up the hill overlooking Santiago Harbor.61 'Teller Amendment' Resolution passed by Congress in 1898, promising to grant Cuba independence after the war62 'Treaty of Paris' Signed December 10, 1898 formally ending the Spanish-American war.63 It also signaled the end of the Spanish empire and beginning of American colonial power.Negotiations between the two countries yielded that Spain give up all right to Cuba and cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States as well as the Philippine Island.64 In turn, Spain recieved 20 million dollars for the islands.65 'Philippine–American War' Conflict between the United States and Filipino revoluntaries raging from June 1899 lasting to the middle part of 1902.66 The war arose from the struggle of the First Philippine Republic to gain indepence following the annexation by the United States. One of the major battles was the Battle of Manilia that occured from Feburary 4th-5th, 1899.67 The conflict broke out when American troops, under order to turn away any insurgents trying to breach their incampment, fired upon an apporaching group of Filiphinese. Similar battles occured for another 2 years before finally the American forces secured the country. Science and Technology The World Columbian Exposition The World’s Columbian Exposition introduced several technological inventions. It popularized electric power, featuring over 90000 electrical lights. It also included an electrical elevated train.68 In the Electricity Building, visitors could see a model of an all electric kitchen. General Electric had created the large dynamo-electric generator to power the kitchen appliances.69 The World’s Fair introduced the gramophone, which was one of the first devices that recorded sound.70 Another new invention was actually the largest attraction at the fair, the Ferris wheel. It was invented by George Ferris.71 Since then it has become an icon of all fairs. Transportation In 1893, the first American-built, gas powered car was built by Charles and Frank Duyea.72 Henry Ford built his first automobile in 1896, a precursor to the Model T.73 Another mode of transportation developed in 1897 when Boston became the first city to construct a subway system.74 Construction In 1890, Daniel Burnham began construct on the Reliance Building in Chicago. The building was the first to have windows composing most of the surface area. This was due to the use of new plate glass windows.75 George Tilyou constructed Steeplechase Park, one of the first amusement parks, on Coney Island in 1897. It debuted several attractions that are still popular.76 Citations 1 John Mack Faragher et. al, ''Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 523. 2 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 500. 3 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 523. 4 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 482. 5 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 556. 6 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 556. 7 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 556. 8 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 554. 9 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 490. 10 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 500. 11 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 500. 12 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 469. 13 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 469. 14 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 523, 578. 15 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 556. 16 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed. Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 496. 17 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 449. 18 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 574. 19 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 556. 20 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 574. 21 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 578. 22 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 515. 23 John Mack Faragher et. al, Out of Many: A History of the American People, 6th ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009), 566. 24 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 491-492. 25 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 493. 26 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 495. 27 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 497-498. 28 Alan Brinkley, American History: A Survey, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 520. 29 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 480-481. 30 James L. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010), 431. 31 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 545. 32 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 545. 33James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 546. 34 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 367. 35 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 367. 36 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 367. 37 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 367. 38 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 368. 39 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 368. 40 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 368. 41 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 368. 42 Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the past. Vol. 2. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 368. 43 James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History. Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 564. 44 James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History. Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 565. 45 James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History. Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 565. 46 James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History. Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 566. 47 Mary Beth Norton, A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. 6th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001). 618. 48 Mary Beth Norton, A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. 6th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001). 665. 49 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 520. 50 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 520. 51 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 520. 52 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 521. 53 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 636. 54 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 636. 55 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 565-66. 56 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 640. 57 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 572. 58 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 571. 59 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 640-41. 60 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 562. 61 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 563. 62 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 572. 63 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 642. 64 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 579-81. 65 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 579-81. 66 James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 714. 67 H.W. Brand et. al, American Stories: A history of the United States, 1st ed., Combined Vol (New York: Peasron/Longman, 2008), 581-84.